Terms & Vocabulary

  • Neurodiversity – A theoretical and sociocultural framework that conceptualizes neurological differences (e.g., ADHD, autism, dyslexia) as natural variations in human cognition rather than deficits, emphasizing inclusion, identity, and systemic responsiveness (Singer, 1999; Armstrong, 2015).

  • Neurodivergent – Individuals whose cognitive processing diverges from dominant norms, often associated with differences in attention, executive functioning, or sensory processing that interact with environmental demands.

  • Strengths-based approach – An evidence-informed perspective that prioritizes leveraging cognitive and behavioral strengths (e.g., creativity, problem-solving, persistence) while supporting areas of need, shown to improve engagement and self-efficacy (Climie & Henley, 2016).

  • Equity vs. equality – Grounded in educational research, equity involves responsive allocation of resources and supports based on learner variability, which is essential for neurodivergent students to access rigorous content (CAST, 2018).

  • Executive functioning (EF) – A set of interrelated cognitive processes, including planning, inhibition, cognitive flexibility, and task initiation, that are strongly linked to academic performance; deficits in EF are a core feature of ADHD (Barkley, 2012).

  • Working memory – The capacity to temporarily hold and manipulate information, which is a significant predictor of mathematical achievement and often impaired in students with ADHD (Alloway & Passolunghi, 2011).

  • Inhibitory control – The ability to regulate impulses and delay responses, closely tied to behavioral and academic regulation in classroom settings.

  • Sustained attention – The ability to maintain focus over time, particularly during non-preferred or cognitively demanding tasks, often compromised in ADHD (APA, 2013).

  • Cognitive load – Derived from Cognitive Load Theory, this refers to the total mental effort required to process information; students with ADHD are more susceptible to overload, which can hinder learning (Sweller, 1988).

  • Time perception (time blindness) – Difficulty accurately estimating and managing time, linked to executive functioning deficits and impacting task completion and pacing.

  • Emotional regulation – The ability to manage emotional responses; research shows this is often intertwined with ADHD and affects academic persistence and classroom behavior (Shaw et al., 2014)

  • Differentiation – A pedagogical approach that adapts content, process, and product to address learner variability, supported by research on inclusive and responsive teaching (Tomlinson, 2014).

  • Scaffolding – Temporary instructional supports that enable students to access tasks within their zone of proximal development, gradually removed as independence increases (Vygotsky, 1978).

  • Chunking – Breaking information into smaller units to reduce working memory demands, particularly beneficial for students with executive functioning challenges.

  • Explicit instruction – Systematic, direct teaching that includes modeling, guided practice, and clear explanations; shown to be highly effective for students with learning and attention differences.

  • Multimodal instruction – Delivering content through multiple modalities (visual, auditory, kinesthetic), which supports diverse cognitive processing pathways.

  • Universal Design for Learning (UDL) – A research-based framework that promotes flexible instructional design to provide multiple means of engagement, representation, and expression (CAST, 2018).

  • Accommodations vs. Modifications – Accommodations alter access to learning without changing expectations, while modifications adjust the learning goals themselves.

  • Lagging skills – A framework (Greene, 2014) suggesting that challenging behavior reflects underdeveloped cognitive or regulatory skills rather than willful noncompliance.

  • Self-regulation – The integration of cognitive, behavioral, and emotional control processes necessary for learning and classroom participation.

  • Task initiation – The ability to begin tasks independently, often impaired in ADHD due to executive dysfunction rather than lack of motivation.

  • Metacognition – Awareness and regulation of one’s own thinking processes, critical for problem-solving and academic independence.